Freud's psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory was given by Sigmund Freud and his followers in 1856-1939. It studies human functioning based on his desires and unconscious forces within him. The key concept, consciousness, is very important as it determines all normal and abnormal behavior. According to Freud, the conscious part of our mind covers a tiny area, whereas the unconscious part contains all things, thoughts, feelings, urges, and memories that we are unaware of. It contains repressed thoughts, hurtful memories, and forbidden desires which have been pushed out of consciousness. It is usually inaccessible to the conscious. Although hidden, unconscious material continues to seek expression and emerges in fantasies, dreams, slip of the tongue, etc., It may lead to irrational and maladaptive behavior if not brought to awareness.

Freud compared conscious and unconscious thoughts with an iceberg, half-hidden and half-exposed. He theorized that a person's personality had three main dynamic components: id, ego, and superego. (Id and Superego being unconscious and Ego being conscious).

Id: It is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all inherited/ biological components of personality present at birth, including sex (life instinct), Eros (libido), and aggressiveness (death instinct).

-Thanatos

Id is the source of instinctual drives, as people are born with it. It is also the first structure that appears during infancy. It can be of two types- life Instinct and death Instinct, which are two opposing forces. Life Instinct is a constructive drive primarily of a sexual nature and consists of libido. Death Instinct, on the other hand, consists of destructive drives and our tendency towards aggression, destruction, and eventual death.

Behavior is the function of life and death instincts. (B=LI+DI)

In Freud's theory, anything that brings pleasure to a person, which can range from eating to painting, is referred to as a sexual activity. According to Freud, the Id operates on the pleasure principle, engaging in selfish and pleasure-oriented behavior and being concerned only with the immediate ratification of instinctual needs without moral considerations. It can produce mental images and wishful fantasies but it cannot undertake realistic actions to meet them.

Ego: it develops to mediate between the naturalistic and external world. It is the decision-making component of personality. As the second part of personality according to Freud, ego develops around the age of 1 year. One of its basic functions is to meet the demands of the Id while ensuring the well-being and survival of individuals as it cares about society and worldly laws. The ego uses reasons and other intellectual resources in dealing with the external world as well as to exercise control over the Id's demands. It operates on the basis of reality principle and is called secondary process thinking. The ego needs and helps with gaining pleasure in a socially acceptable way. It maintains a balance between the desires of the Id, demands of reality, and the worldly constraints of super ago. Hence, it is often called the executive branch of personality.

Superego: It incorporates society's values and morals which are learned from one's parents and society. It is the third part of personality according to Freud. It is the result of internalizing the taboos and moral values of society concerning what is right and what is wrong. As it develops it deals with the UN habited desires of id. It is idealistic and independent and has two main components- ego ideal and conscience. Ego ideal sets the standard while Conscience reduces guilt.

If there is a conflict between the Id and superego and it cannot be resolved by the ego anxiety arises and people may use different mechanisms against such anxiety.

Topological aspect of Freud's theory:

Conscious mind- aware at all times/thoughts and perceptions.

Subconscious mind- automatic behavior/ learned or stored memory which are easy to bring to conscious.

Unconscious mind- repressed memories/storehouse of troublesome memories/ selfish motives and bad aspects of past experiences.

Freud's psychoanalytical theory was primarily concerned with personality and emotional development. It focuses on the way people's behavior and needs are dependent on their growth environment as a child, emphasizing the role of childhood experience. It studies how people bring a balance between the id and superego, or the instincts and morals learned by society. According to Freud, there is a constant conflict in our unconscious mind and how we resolve these conflicts describes our personality.

Libido: it is a term in the psychoanalytical theory of Freud to describe the energy created by survival and sexual instincts. It is part of the Id and is the driving force behind all behavior. Unlike present times, when libido is only used for sexual energy, Freud used the term for psychic energy. He suggested that humans are born with a reservoir of unconscious, primal energy that provides motivation to do any work.

Psychosexual development theory: according to Freud, anything that provides pleasure is considered sexual. For example, for a child sucking his thumb can be pleasurable, hence sexual. Freud gave 5 stages of psychosexual development of a child. At each of these stages, the libido is focused on a particular area called the erogenous zone. When handled carefully during this time, a child can truly grow into a successful and healthy adult.

The five sexual stages as given by Freud are as follows:

1. The Oral Stage:

Age Range- Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone- Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Oral Fixations- The oral stage tends to occur between birth and around 18 months old, during which time the oral (feeding) needs of the child are either met, overstimulated, or unmet. For example, Freud might suggest that if a child has issues during the weaning process, they might develop an oral fixation. Freud may also suggest that nail-biting, smoking, gum-chewing, and excessive drinking are signs of an oral fixation. This would indicate that the individual did not resolve the primary conflicts during the earliest stage of psychosexual development, the oral stage.

2. The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon how parents ​approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

Anal Fixations- The second stage of psychosexual development is known as the anal stage because it is primarily focused on controlling bowel movements. Fixations at this point in development can lead to what Freud called anal-retentive and anal-expulsive personalities.

Anal-retentive individuals: This group may have experienced overly strict and harsh potty training as children and may grow to be overly obsessed with orderliness and tidiness.

Anal-expulsive individuals: On the other hand, anal-expulsive individuals may have experienced very lax potty training, resulting in them being very messy and disorganized as adults.

In either case, both types of fixations result from not properly resolving the critical conflict that takes place during this stage of development.

3. The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.​ Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

Phallic Fixations: The phallic stage of development is primarily focused on identifying with the same-sex parent. Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.

At this stage, boys may develop what Freud referred to as an Oedipus complex. Girls may develop an analogous issue known as an Electra complex. If not resolved, these complexes may linger and continue to affect behavior into adulthood.

4. The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that children could become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult. According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.

5. The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but lasts throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development can balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.

Evaluating Freud's Stages of Human Development

Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been several observations and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on several grounds, including scientific and feminist critiques.

Critical analysis of Freud's theory: The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory. Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables. Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Key differences between the approaches of Piaget and Freud that can be considered critical points from a Piagetian perspective:

1. Lack of Empirical Evidence: Piaget was known for his emphasis on empirical research and the importance of observation and experimentation in the study of child development. Freud's psychosexual stages, on the other hand, were based on clinical case studies and introspection, which might not meet Piaget's standards for empirical rigor.

2. Lack of Universal Application: Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that stages of cognitive development are universal and occur in the same sequence across all individuals. In contrast, Freud's psychosexual stages are more focused on the development of personality and are less concerned with universal patterns. This difference in universality might be a point of criticism from a Piagetian perspective.

3. Different Focus: Piaget's theory primarily explores how children develop their cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding of the world. Freud's theory, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and sexual drives in personality development. These differing focuses make it challenging to directly compare or criticize one theory with the other.

4. Developmental Stages vs. Psychosexual Stages: Piaget's theory is organized into distinct cognitive developmental stages, each with its own set of characteristics and milestones. Freud's theory, in contrast, is organized around psychosexual stages, which are primarily concerned with the resolution of conflicts related to sexual and aggressive instincts. Piaget may argue that his developmental stages are more comprehensive and universally applicable.

Here are some of the criticisms Erik Erikson had of Freud's theory:

1. Narrow Focus on Early Childhood: One of Erikson's key criticisms was Freud's emphasis on early childhood experiences, particularly the psychosexual stages that focused on infancy and early childhood. Erikson believed that human development continued throughout the entire lifespan, not just in the early years. He expanded the concept of psychosocial development to include stages that span from infancy to old age, highlighting the importance of developmental tasks and crises at each stage of life.

2. Emphasis on Sexual Drives: Freud's theory places significant emphasis on sexual and aggressive drives as primary motivators of human behavior. Erikson believed that this limited perspective did not adequately capture the complexity of human development and social interactions. He introduced the concept of psychosocial crises, which involve social and cultural factors, in addition to biological drives, as important influences on development.

3. Culture and Society: Erikson argued that Freud's theory was too focused on individual experiences and did not take into account the influence of culture and society on human development. He believed that development was not solely determined by unconscious drives but was also shaped by the social and cultural context in which individuals lived. Erikson's theory accounts for the impact of societal norms and values on an individual's psychosocial development.

4. Positive Outcomes and Identity Formation: Erikson introduced the idea of ego identity as a central concept in his theory. He emphasized the importance of individuals developing a positive sense of identity as they navigate the psychosocial crises of each stage. In contrast, Freud's theory primarily focused on the resolution of conflicts and the avoidance of negative outcomes, such as fixation or regression.

5. Integration of Personal and Social Identity: Erikson's theory emphasizes the development of a sense of personal identity within the context of social identity. He believed that individuals needed to reconcile their personal needs and desires with the expectations and values of their society. Freud's theory, in Erikson's view, did not adequately address this integration of personal and social identity.

FIXATION: A fixation is an obsessive drive that may or may not be acted on involving an object, concept, or person. Initially introduced by Sigmund Freud, fixation is a persistent focus of the id’s pleasure-seeking energies at an early stage of psychosexual development. Oral, anal, and phallic fixations occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move on Sigmund to the next.

For example, individuals with oral fixations may have problems with drinking, smoking, eating, or nail-biting.

Freud believed that the development of a healthy adult personality was the result of successfully completing each of the psychosexual stages. At each point in development, children face a conflict that must be resolved to move on successfully to the next stage. How this conflict is resolved plays a role in the formation of adult personality. Failing to complete a stage, Freud suggested, would cause that person to remain essentially “stuck.” In other words, they would become fixated at that point in development. Freud also believed that fixations could result if a particular stage left a dominant impression on an individual's personality. Resolving the psychosexual conflicts requires a considerable amount of the libido’s energy. If a great deal of this energy is expended at a particular point in development, the events of that stage may ultimately leave a stronger impression on that individual’s personality.

How did Adler Disagree with Freud?

Sigmund Freud	Adler
Behavior is motivated by internal biological drives (sex and aggression)	​ Behavior is motivated by social influence and striving for superiority
​ People have no choice in shaping their personality	People are responsible for who they are
Present behavior is caused by the past (e.g. childhood)	Present behavior is shaped by the future (goals orientation)
​ Emphasis on the unconscious process	People are aware of what they are doing and why
Freud split the personality into components (id, ego, superego)	Adler thought the individual should be studied as a whole (holism)
​ Relationship the same-sex parent is of primary importance	Wider family relationships including with siblings of primary importance.